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The Karkota dynasty (c. 625 − 855 CE) ruled over the Kashmir valley and some northern parts of the Indian subcontinent during 7th and 8th centuries. Their rule saw a period of political expansion, economic prosperity and emergence of Kashmir as a centre of culture and scholarship.
The Karkota rulers constructed several shrines to Vishnu in their dominions.Alexis Sanderson (2025). 9784903235080, Institute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo. ISBN 9784903235080 They however also allowed Buddhism to flourish under them. Stupa, Chaitya and Vihara can be found in the ruins of their capital. Martand Sun Temple in the Anantnag district was built by Lalitaditya. It is the oldest known Sun temple in India and was also one of the biggest temple complexes at the time.
Avanti Varman ascended the throne of Kashmir in 855, establishing the Utpala dynasty and ending the rule of Karkota dynasty.
Other sources include the chronicles of a multitude of Buddhist pilgrims—Xuanzang (May 631−April 633), Yijing (673−685), Wukong, Hyecho and others—who visited Kashmir during the dynasty. The Kuttanimata, penned by a court-poet of Jayapida, was a Didactic method on erotics but gave a lively account of contemporary Kashmiri life.
Nonetheless, historical accuracy increases drastically from the fourth book onward, and the narrative of the Karkota dynasty in the Rajatarangini has been heavily used to reconstruct Kashmiri history. Michael Witzel notes the fourth book to be accurate in its chronology (down to day) in that it aligns perfectly with contemporary Chinese sources; however a correction of +25 years need to be introduced throughout the dynasty.
Kalhana's third book mentions of a Gonanda dynasty (II), which ruled for about 590 years till the establishment of the Karkotas; on cross-vetting with coins and inscriptions, names of some of these rulers are found to correspond with the Alchon Huns, who ruled hundreds of years later. Across the first three books, Kalhana reshuffles multiple names, retrofits the same stories, assigns abnormally long reigns, and telescopes some rulers into the past. Durlabhavardhana—the founder of the Karkotas—was held to be under the employment of Baladitya, the last ruler of the Gonanda dynasty (II). Baladitya had no male heir but a daughter Anaṅgalekhā and did not wish his territory to be annexed by in-laws. To avert such a possibility he had her married to Durlabhavardhana, who was from a low caste. However, after Baladitya's death, Durlabhavardhana ascended to the throne with help from a minister, and claimed descent from the mythical Naga king Karkotaka, establishing the Karkota dynasty. Witzel seems to accept this view.
Atreyi Biswas however rejects this literal description of the establishment of the Karkota dynasty as fictitious. In a critical reading of the Rajatarangini, and taking into account numismatic as well as literary sources, the dates of the Gonanda rulers are adjusted and Biswas deems the first ruler of the Karkota dynasty to be Durlabhaka Pratapaditya, who claimed the throne after defeating Yudhisthira, the last Alchon Hun ruler of Kashmir. His father Durlabhavardhana would have been a subordinate king under the-then Huna ruler, Narendraditya Khinkhila. Baladitya and his immediate predecessors of the Gonanda dynasty would never have existed at all or were subordinate kings under the Karkotas. Ahmad Hasan Dani follows her interpretation in one of his works. However, Gudrun Melzer notes that Biswas did not take into account a different chronology proposed by two German historians (Humbach and Göbl), which has since received eminence in Huna studies; scholars have disputed her dating and commentary on Narendraditya Khinkhila.
Durlabhaka's reign saw increasing trade relation with neighbouring polities and the development of the Classical Kārkoṭa style of sculpture. Kalhana records him to have impressive military prowess. Several Agraharam were established by Hanumant, son of his minister Uda (var. Oda, Aida).
]] Candrapida ruled from 712/13−720 and bore the name Vajraditya. He is otherwise known from the Tangshu under the name Zhentuoluobili. Kalhana paints a benevolent and virtuous image of the ruler—two stories are narrated to the same effect. Jayanta Bhatta's great-grandfather Saktisvāmin was one of his ministers.
In 713, Emperor Xuanzong of Tang received an embassy from Candrapida requesting aid against Arab invasions. Candrapida did not receive any help but nonetheless, managed to defend his territory. In 720, Xuanzong sent an envoy to bestow upon him, the title "King of Kashmir". These diplomatic exchanges led to the formation of an imperial alliance between the Tangs and Karakotas; in 722, after the Tangs emerged victorious against Tibet, the Chinese court credits Kashmir for having provided ample food to their troops stationed in Gilgit.
Kalhana notes him to have been assassinated by his brother, Tarapida, who recruited a Brahmin for the purpose.
In October–November 724, Chinese chronicles mention of an unhappy Jincheng seeking defection to Kashmir; the-then King (unnamed) apparently consented and urged for military assistance from Zabulistan to ward off the Tibetan troops. Tansen Sen notes this king to be Tarapida; however other scholars have identified him with Candrapida.
Stein had rejected Kalhana's description of Lalitaditya's conquests as "mythology" and noted his ignorance about territories outside Kashmir. However, Hermann Goetz found little amiss with Kalhana's claims and accepted them as "historical fact"; Goetz's acceptance has since penetrated into the work of numerous scholars like André Wink and Ronald Inden. Sen, comparing Kalhana's account with contemporary Chinese and Tibetan sources including official histories, coins and pilgrim-chronicles, agrees with Stein.
Numerous Brahmin immigrants were brought to Kashmir during his time including the ancestors of Abhinavagupta. A brilliant intellectual and artistic culture flourished during his reign.
Vajraditya's reign saw a successful raid by the Governor of Sindh and introduction of slave trade. He had numerous concubines and at-least four wives Meghavali, Amrtaprabha, Manjarika and Mamma; his four sons were Tribhuvanapida (from Meghabali), Jayapida (from Amrtaprabha), Prithivyapida I (from Manjarika) and Samgramapida I (from Mamma).
Kalhana does not note any additional detail except not finding either of them to be worthy of wielding royal power, and Stein reiterates that no other evidence of these rulers have been located.
Brahmin immigrants from Indus and Dravida regions were settled in Kashmir during Jayapida's reign; Kshemendra's great-great-grandfather Narendra was a minister in his court. Jayapida married Kalyanadevi, daughter of King Jayanta of Cooch Behar, whilst away in a conquest. Returning to Kashmir, he found his brother-in-law Jajja to have usurped the throne but went on to defeat him.
Kalhana notes his later years to be tyrannical when Jayapida sought to (unsuccessfully) rescind Agraharam and imposed a cruel taxation regime on Brahmins, forcing them to emigrate; he was cursed to death by a Brahmin. Jayapida had two sons—Lalitapida (from Durga) and Samgramapida II (from Kalyanadevi).
He had one son Cippatajayapida, from his concubine Jayadevi, who was the daughter of a spirit distiller.
Tribhuvanapida's son, Ajitapida was nominated by Utpala immediately after Cippatajayapida's death. A few years afterwards, Mamma waged a successful battle against Utpala, and installed Anangipida. Three years later, Utpala's son Sukhavarman rebelled successfully and installed Utpalapida, a son of Ajitapida. Under his rule, merchants declared independence at the outposts of the territory. Within a few years, Sukhavarman set out to assume the throne for himself but was murdered by a relative; finally, his son Avantivarman deposed Utpalapida and claimed the throne c. 855 with help from minister Sura, thus establishing the Utpala dynasty.
Hunting was a popular sport for the princely class. Theaters were frequently organised and there were halls for the purpose; Ratnavali is noted to be a popular drama.
Kalhana notes Jayapida to be a liberal patron of arts and even invited scholars from abroad; Yigal Bronner notes his court to have ushered a breakthrough moment in Kashmiri poetics. Daniel Ingalls writes that Jayapada's court was responsible for birthing the "school of literary criticism in Kashmir". Two literary theorists were installed in his office: Vāmana as a minister and Udbhaṭa as the chief scholar. Udbhata wrote four works—Kumārasambhava, a poem on the theme of the marriage of Śiva and Pārvatī; Kāvyālaṃkārasaṃgraha, a short commentary on Bhamaha Kāvyālaṃkāra; another (now-lost) commentary on the Nāṭyaśāstra; and a mostly-lost but extensive Vivaraṇa on Bhāmaha—in what Bronner notes to be an unprecedented volume of literature production by contemporary standards. Vāmana composed sūtra texts. Both aimed at an audience of literary scholars and engaged (for the first time) in critical discussions surrounding poetic theory, praxis and semantic cognition using tools from mīmāṃsā etc.; a grand universe of poetry, rigidly theorising the many elements of aesthetics, their scopes and inter-relation was sought to be created. Kuttanimata was penned by Damodaragupta in his court. Among other noted figures were the grammarian Kṣīra, the poets Manoratha, Śaṅkhadatta, Caṭaka, and Sandhimat, and a Buddhist philosopher Dharmottara. (2012). 9789069801582, Brill. ISBN 9789069801582
Ratnākara wrote Haravijaya, under the patronage of Cippatajayapida; in fifty cantos and 4351 verses, it is the largest surviving Mahākāvya and is based on the defeat of Andhaka by Shiva.
Contemporary terracotta works (typically, faces) have been located. Stone sculptures dedicated to Durlabhaka have been excavated.
Candrapika had multiple Vishnu shrines installed. Jayapida set up Buddhist Viharas and commissioned the construction of multiple Buddha statues; he also established a new capital town at Jayapura (current day Andrkoth). Lalitaditya commissioned a number of shrines in Kashmir, including the now-ruined Martand Sun Temple and numerous Buddhist structures. He also established several towns, including a new capital at Parihasapura.
The five brothers had set up a Shiva shrine—Jayesvara during Cippatajayapida's rule. After coming to the helm, they commissioned multiple towns and temples—Utapalasvāmin, Padmasvāmin, Dharmasvāmin, Kalyanasvāmin, Mamasvāmin, Utpalapura, Padmapura, etc. Padma's wife had two mathas built.
| +List of Karkota rulers of Kashmir ! S.N. ! Ruler ! Reign (CE) | |||
| 1 | Durlabhavardhana | 625–662 | |
| 2 | Durlabhaka or Pratipaditya | 662–712 | |
| 3 | Chandrapeeda or Varnaditya | 712–720 | |
| 4 | Tarapida or Udayaditya | 720–724 | |
| 5 | Lalitaditya Muktapida | 724–760 | |
| 6 | Kuvalayaditya | 760–761 | |
| 7 | Vajraditya or Bapyayika or Lalitapida | 761–768 | |
| 8 | Prithivyapida I | 768–772 | |
| 9 | Sangramapida | 772–779 | |
| 10 | Jayapida | 779–813 | |
| 11 | Lalitapida | 813–825 | |
| 12 | Sangramapida II | 825–832 | |
| 13 | Chipyata-Jayapida | 832–885 | |
| Other puppet rulers under Utpala dynasty | |||
| 14 | Ajitapida | ~ | |
| 15 | Anangapida | ~ | |
| 16 | Utpalapida | ~ | |
| 17 | Sukhavarma | ~ | |
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